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Introduction to Botany

Botany is a study of pants that incorporates organization, recording, observation and classifications of facts associated with plants by means of inductive reasoning. The range of botanical classification principles involves assuming and testing hypothesis. Hypothesis is a provisional, unsure statement that can either be incorrect or correct. In order to study the accurateness of hypothesis scientist conduct various experiments and researches.

Microscope is an important tool when conducting experiments in botany. The main feature of microscope is that it magnifies tiny objects to around 200,000 times, allowing botanical scientists to study invisible and miniature plant organisms under botanical classifications (Berlin, 2014).

The internal structure of plant is studied under plant anatomy. Plant anatomy helps in defining information relevant to past. Scientists match tree rings with archaeologist sites to know their age. Introduction to Botany Another application of plant anatomy is in criminal investigations. The associations among plants and stems can also be studied under the discipline of plant anatomy. Furthermore, paleobotany is study of plant fossils and plant functions come under plant physiology. Plant physiology evolved due to efforts of van Helmont and his land experimentations; however cloned genes are used by modern plant

physiologists to understand how plants function (Janda & Abbott, 2010).
Owing to huge variety and diversity in plants, the science of plant taxonomy evolved that deals with a formalized system for classification of plants. Moreover plant geography deals with distribution of plants, while plant ecology deals with interaction of plants with surrounding environment and each other. To add on, Introduction to Botany plant morphology deals with studying structure and form of plants (Greuter Et al., 2011).

Relevance of Classification Systems to Botanical Species and Botanical Evolutionary Processes
The classification system being used currently involves naming all living organisms with two word Latinized scientific names. Theopharastus was the first person who classified about 500 pants into herbs, and trees and shrubs on the basis of leaf characteristics. Then more classifications came into being such as, distinction between dicots and monocots plants or fruit or flower structure plants (Smýkal Et al., 2011).

The confusing classification structure of plants was improvised by Linnaeus as he developed a binomial system used to classify plants and which also showed associations among plants. The idea is that if a new plant is identified by a botanist, he/she must publish Latin description of plant in a public journal and then the annotated herbarium specimen must be

deposited in herbarium that designates the type specimen for public to see (Fatemeh, Sheidai & Asadi, 2010).
Currently living organisms are divided into six kingdom system: Animalia (multi-cellular), Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea and Bacteria. Taxonomists are involved in classifying and naming the organisms based on dichotomous keys (Sorimachi & Okayasu, 2013).

Kingdom Type of Organism Organization Reproduction
Animalia Naked Mole rats, Ants, Elephants Locomotion and are multi-cellular Sexual reproduction through fertilization
Plantae Flowering plants, gymnosperms, spores plants, liverworts, mosses, kelp and seaweeds. No means of locomotion and are multi-cellular Asexual involves producing new plant without flower.
Sexual involves male pollen grain contacting stigma.

Fungi Smuts, Mildews, yeasts, Mushrooms, molds and Funguses No chloroplasts but include call wall, nucleus and is multi-cellular. Asexual and Sexual
Protista Algae and Protozoans Single aukaryotic cell and unicellular Sexual through exchange of genetic materials and asexual with binary fission

Archaea Thermoplasma, Ferroplasma and Halobacteria No membrane bound organelles or nucleus in cells Multiple or binary fission, budding, fragmentation and asexual reproduction
Bacteria Colonial and Unicellular Unicellular (Prokaryotic) Binary Fissions and Asexual Reproduction

Evaluation of Botanical Strategies Related to Species Conservation
There are various adaptive strategies within botanical domain that help on conserving species. First of all the Royal Botanic Gardens are one of the most important centers for action and advice on fungal and plant conservation. The Royal Botanic Gardens involve identifying and distributing species; studying the level of threats to species; ensuring species survival in on-site reserves; assessing and monitoring of plant diversity hotspots and threatened habitats; raising awareness and public education; restoration of habitats; reintroduction of species; ex situ conservation;

and legislating on biological diversity (Dansi, Adoukonou-Sagbadja & Vodouhe, 2010).

Moreover, the Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) is partnering with 120 countries to link more than 800 botanic gardens. The BGCI can be considered as the largest plant conservation network in the world. BGCI operates from the development of global policy to grass-roots action, to achieve development goals, environmental education and plant conservation. BGCI further aims to assure that plants are considered world’s most important natural resources, underpinning all life on Earth and offering essential ecosystem services. The mission of BGCI is to: “mobilize botanic gardens and engage partners in securing plant diversity for the well-being of people and the planet” (Musacchio, 2011).

Molecular Properties of Botanical Life

The molecular properties of botanical life including the hierarchical structure are based on environment interactions, development, metabolism, genetic system, reproduction, hierarchical organisation, complexity and chemical uniqueness. Even though all living organisms are made up of similar bonds and elements, they have a multifaceted structure and unique molecular organization, based on lipids (fats), carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids.

Moreover, livings systems are arranged in an ascending order of complexity in a hierarchy of organisation. Each level in this hierarchy is based on the elements in level preceding and is arranged due to the level of complexity, starting from macromolecules, cells, organisms, populations and species (Mauseth, 2014).

Living systems also have the ability to reproduce by cell replication which results in production of new cells, new organisms, new individuals and new population. Two important concepts linked with reproduction are inheritance and variation. All living systems contain genetic material known as DNA in their nucleic acids. DNA is made up of nucleotides that contain nitrogenous bases (thiamine, guanine, cytosine and adenine) along with sugar phosphate (dioxyribose phosphate). Genetic code denotes the correspondence between sequence of amino acids and bases (Stumpf, Conn & Preiss, 2012).

To add on, living systems have the ability to obtain nutrients from environment and maintain themselves and this process is known as metabolism. Metabolism further involves certain supplementary processes, such as, synthesis of structures and molecules, respiration and photosynthesis. All living organisms undergo a lifecycle throughout which they develop and experience structural changes such as, increase in weight, height or size. Living organisms also have the ability to respond to environmental stimuli and react to it (irritability). Animals and plants respond to environment in diverse manners (Real, 2012).

Botanical Hierarchy
Botanical hierarchy involves classification of plants on the basis of their characteristics. The level of plant grouping, naming of plants and setting their ranks is the responsibility of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. First of all it should be understood that every plant belongs to specie, which belongs to a genus,

which is part of a family. The family has order that belongs to a class. Class comes under division which further comes under kingdom (Vermeulen & Johnston, 2012).
As far as the botanical hierarchy is concerned, there is a ranking system in place which ranks in the categories of Principal and Secondary Ranks. The ranking discussed in the previous paragraph consisting of species,

genus, family, order, class, division or phylum and kingdom, is the Principal ranking. On the other hand, the secondary ranks are used only when larger groups are required to be divided into smaller ones. For instance, varieties can be subdivided into forms; species into varieties; sections into series; genus into sections; and families into tribes. A group can be further subdivided into secondary ranks only when there are at least two elements. However, this hierarchical code is often criticized for not providing the requisite taxonomic decisions (De Queiroz & Donoghue, 2013).

Evaluation of the Relevance of Properties of Botanical Life to Botanical Life, Species Survival & Evolution
Currently, living organisms are becoming extinct at an increasing rate. According to the Centre for Plant Conservation, in the US alone, around 4,000 plant species are at the very verge of extinction.

The properties of botanical life allow species to survive despite unfavourable survival conditions. As botanical life evolves under natural conditions, it leads to inculcation of certain adaptive features and instincts that favour survival. Biodiversity is a term that involves integration of genetics and ecology in conservation theory. Biodiversity forms a link between future survival and evolutional past by means of continuing evolution and adaptation (Vasilyeva & Stephenson, 2010).

Furthermore specific natural mechanisms are in place to create genetic variations so that evolution can take place. Evolution involves various mechanisms such as gene flow, recombination, genetic drift, natural selection and mutation. Two out of these mechanisms that decrease genetic variations are natural selection and genetic drift, while mechanisms that increase genetic variations are mutation, recombination and gene flow (Anderson, Willis & Mitchell-Olds, 2011).
Genetic drift is a change in biodiversity. For instance, each pollen grain encloses a diverse combination of alleles.

Chance events determine which pollen grains succeed in producing a seed and arriving at compatible flower, regardless of the fact that they are carried by insects or wind. In terms of mutation certain errors that incur during DNA copying/ producing process becomes part of gametes. Lastly, Introduction to Botany in natural selection plants that are adapted in more a profound manner, produce more young ones and grow more quickly as compared to other (Vasilyeva & Stephenson, 2010).

Challenges to the Survival of Botanical Species including Human Population and Activities, Climate Change and Pollution
There are a range of challenges to the survival of botanical species, such as habitat loss, Introduction to Botany overharvesting, human population, climate change and pollution. The growth and development of human population, along with increasing mobility and consumption levels are posing serious threats to the survival of botanical species. First of all, habitat loss takes place when a pertinent locality is transformed from usable habitat to unusable habitat due to human activities such as: water extraction, deforestation, mining, aquaculture, agriculture and industrial activities. Another threat to biodiversity is habitat fragmentation (Godefroid Et al., 2011).

Secondly, when heavy metals and synthetic chemicals are disposed off in environment, they can disturb species abundance and can even result in species extinction. For instance, both phosphorus and nitrogen are needed for plant growth, but when these chemicals are applied in the shape of fertilizers in abundance, it can lead to creation of dead zones. Another important concept linked with pollution is bioaccumulation (XXX).

Moreover human population growth also affect environment which indicates that there is a discrepancy between demand and supply of resources. Humans satisfied their basic need of food through agriculture and cultivation. Due to this, extinction of certain species is also taking place at an increasing rate. Introduction to Botany Predicting the rate of local extinction rates is very difficult as there are variations in enacted conservation measures, consumption patterns, invasive species, habitat threats, vegetations, climate, species distribution and biological diversity (Minteer & Collins, 2010).

Lastly both animals and plants are sensitive to climate and temperature fluctuations. Over a period of time the global temperature has undergone a great deal of variations. Air pollutants can cause various diseases in animals and human beings. These also cause acid rains, which not only destroy plants but also make soil infertile. Introduction to Botany Pollutants in the form of poisonous gases like those used in refrigeration destroy Ozone, thereby enabling abnormal amounts of the ultraviolet radiation to reach earth; this can causes damage to animals, plants and human beings. Soil pollutants have the capability to disturb plant metabolism mechanisms and lead to drastically reduced crop yields (Godefroid Et al., 2011).

Key Strategies to Address Challenges to the Survival of Botanical Species
The key strategies related to addressing the challenges mentioned in the previous paragraphs involve formation of botanical gardens that play a unique and important role in plant conservation. Introduction to Botany Botanical gardens are built to promote educational and scientist activities to develop action plans that create messages and campaign to increase awareness about plant diversity and human impact; build educational programs for public and professionals; Introduction to Botany prescribe effective remedial strategies; evaluate level of risks and threats to population and species; documenting

national, regional and local floras and forming the action plans (Rands Et al., 2010).
There are numerous associations in North America that are devoted to crafting…