Introduction to Environmental Science

Introduction to Environmental Science

TASK – 1
Components Needed to Sustain Life on Earth
There are various specific conditions that are necessary to sustain life on earth such as the availability of water, appropriate temperature range, suitable ambient gases, and light.

Water is essential to support life on earth because the constant recycling process of water maintains the ecological balance in the atmosphere and also sustains the hydrological cycle in earth.

Temperature helps sustain life by maintaining temporal differences within different time zones, different times of the day and the year. There is an essential need for a certain gas mix in the atmosphere for existence and continuation of life on earth. The main gases which are found in the atmosphere are oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (78%) (Miller & Spoolman, 2011).

light is important as it enables photosynthesis that utilises solar energy. In this process water and carbon dioxide are converted into oxygen gas and carbohydrates, while nucleic acids, fats and proteins are synthesized along with various other elements, such as phosphorus, sulphur and nitrogen (Botkin, Keller and Rosenthal, 2012).
Identification & Description of a Range of Ecosystems

The ecosystem is a community of animals and plants that are linked to certain specified abiotic (non-living) features and specified climatic conditions. If a broader outlook is considered, then there are only two types of ecosystems in our environment, namely, aquatic (water) and terrestrial (land) ecosystems (Kenneth & Lazier, 2009).

The aquatic ecosystems are further divided into marine ecosystem and freshwater ecosystem. The former include continuously cycling water that is low on salt content such as rivers and streams, while the latter include the oceans and the seas.

Introduction to Environmental Science.The fresh water ecosystems at 1.8% of the earth’s surface form the base of food web and help other species in sustaining life. The Ocean or marine ecosystems cover a very huge area of the earth’s surface i.e. 75%.

These play a major role in maintaining the environment as almost 40% photosynthesis takes place inside the ocean ecosystems (Newman & Unger, 2002).
The terrestrial ecosystems are further classified into tundra, deserts, grasslands and forests.

Tundra Ecosystems
These represent the barren land, because they are usually found in severe climatic conditions. Tundra ecosystems are further divided into arctic and alpine categories. Arctic tundra ecosystems are found above the tree line and below the polar ice cap in the northern hemisphere, while the Alpine tundra ecosystem is found above the tree line in high mountains (Newman & Unger, 2002).

Desert Ecosystems
The desert ecosystems comprise of dry arid expanses of land which are characterised by high winds, lesser height above the mean sea level and lack of humidity and moisture. These ecosystems also lack vegetation and water owing to high temperatures and absence of water and rainfalls.

Overall, approximately the seventh part of the dry land on earth is constituted by these ecosystems (Tyler Et al., 2006).

Grassland Ecosystems
The grassland ecosystems are normally located in tropical areas and regions with moderate temperature limits. These are covered by wide expanses of wild grass and overall constitute about 1/5th of the dry land on earth (Newman & Unger, 2002).

Forest Ecosystems
Unlike the desert ecosystems, forest ecosystems are characterised by dense vegetation in the form of both trees and shrubs. The principal types of these ecosystems include: North Coniferous or Boreal forests; temperate forests; and tropical rain forests (Tyler Et al., 2006).

Comparison of the Identified Ecosystems
The aforementioned ecosystems enjoy various similarities and differences at almost all levels of classification. These similarities and differences are mainly based upon the biotic and abiotic factors, which are being discussed below.

On a lower level of classification, the terrestrial ecosystems include various smaller ecosystems such as: deserts characterised by flatlands, dunes, dryness and hot temperatures; tropical rainforests characterised by millions of distinct animal and plant species, humidity and hot temperatures; arctic and alpine regions characterised by harsh and cold climates; and also deciduous and coniferous forests (Hoffman Et al., 2002).

As compared to the terrestrial ecosystems, the aquatic ecosystems cover the majority of earth’s surface i.e. 75% and include both fresh water and marine ecosystems.

Some other types of the aquatic ecosystems include: littoral ecosystems which are shallow water environments near shores; lentic ecosystems consisting of swamps, ponds and still water bodies; and lotic ecosystems comprising of flowing water bodies such as streams or rivers (Hoffman Et al., 2002).

At the highest level of classification, the similarities amongst the terrestrial and aquatic systems include: stratification or vertical zonation; equilibrium which can be translated as non-existence of change until influenced by external abnormal factors; significant mutual interdependence amongst all species; and a variety of population at difference tropic levels and depths (Hoffman Et al., 2002).

On the other hand the differences amongst the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are that aquatic organisms are less affected by gravity and more affected by water pressure while the terrestrial species are only affected by the gravity of earth.

In terrestrial ecosystems light is available in abundance, so it is not a limiting factor while in aquatic ecosystems light can serve as a limiting factor due to variation in depth. In aquatic ecosystems oxygen is also a limiting factor because of its availability only as part of water.

Organisms in terrestrial ecosystems are often exposed to desiccation due to drought and low rainfall, while the organisms living in aquatic ecosystems are free of this dependence. Therefore, terrestrial ecosystems are less stable as compared to aquatic in terms of environment aberrations and fluctuations.

The aquatic ecosystems are richer in minerals and nutrients which can support a diversity of life forms as compared to the terrestrial ecosystems (Hoffman Et al., 2002). Some other important abiotic factor related differences are given in Table – 1 below.

Abiotic Factor Aquatic Ecosystem Terrestrial Ecosystem
Temperature Slight and gradual variations in temperature High variations in temperature
Water Abundantly available Available in varying amount at different locations

Light Available at surface only Abundantly available
Table – 1: Abiotic Factors Related Differences
There are mainly three categories of ocean ecosystems, namely: deep ocean surface, deep ocean water and shallow-ocean water ecosystems.

Photosynthesis takes place only inside the shallow and deep ocean surface ecosystems, which makes them very important as photosynthetic plankton is the base of food chain. Inside the deep ocean photosynthesis is not possible due to lack of sunlight (Hoffman Et al., 2002).

Selective Breeding Programs
There are various selective breeding program strategies that are focused on maintenance of species and save them from extinction. Some of these are the Selective Breeding and Genetics (Atlantic salmon) and Species Maintenance Program (SMP).

The general characteristics and issues of selective breeding programme strategies related to species maintenance include setting up a facility to keep the endangered plants or animals in a customized habitat where they are safeguarded from adverse external forces (Tave, 1995).

The selective breeding program based on Salmon was initiated in Norway. Currently there are various companies which are involved in breeding of Salmon thereby increasing competition, lowered prices and an improved overall quality.

Few companies which are involved in the selective breeding of Salmon are SalmoBreed and Aqua Gen (Ponzoni, Acosta & Ponniah, 2006). The selective breeding program on Salmon has been operational since 1992 and it has significantly improved the prospects of Salmon in the Atlantic Ocean.

However, this programme has often been accused owing to its impact upon the natural balance of marine ecosystems in terms of both disturbing the proportion of species and environmental impact of the commercialization (Tave, 1995).
The underlying purpose of SMP is to protect the endangered species of livebearer. The SMP has established various well equipped breeding facilities for fish to make sure that the original breed of livebearer can be protected from external organisms.

The program runs by obtaining advice from experts relating to species that are at risk, member countries with the species willing to share them and member countries without the species willing to devote tank space to them.

Unlike the selective breeding program on Salmon, the SMP is a non-commercial programme and has often been praised owing to its lack of any damaging impact upon the environment and also a minimal effect upon the balance of ecosystems (Tave, 1995).

Reasons for Habitat Loss & Environmental Damage
There can be a number of different reasons of habitat loss and environmental damage, almost all of these reasons stem from urbanisation and industrialisation (Hogan, 2010). The global population is growing at a rapid pace and human beings need extra space for accommodation and other activities.

The accommodation takes its toll in the form of habitat loss whereas the activities damage the environment (Hogan, 2010).

There are generally three degrees of habitat loss i.e. actual destruction, fragmentation, and degradation. All of these three are equally harmful for a habitat but exercise their devastating effects in different manners.

Actual destruction includes activities like: deforestation, filling in of wetlands, indiscriminative agricultural activities, and urbanisation of flatlands, soil packing which causes instant extinction or displacement of species.

Fragmentation involves altering of habitats and encompasses activities like: building up of communication infrastructures, building of dams and construction of towns and villages aids to the extinction or displacement of species but lesser than total destruction.

Degradation occurs when the quality of a habitat deteriorates because of pollution or invasive species. It disturbs the balance of an ecosystem and leads to its destruction at a later stage (Hogan, 2010).

Relevance of Biological Cycles to Ecosystems Management
The most important of all the biological cycles are the nitrogen, the hydrological and the carbon cycles.
The nitrogen cycle is found in terrestrial ecosystems because living organisms use nitrogen to produce various molecules such as nucleic, proteins, and amino acids.

Nitrogen cycle is disturbed by the destruction of plant and production of excessive wastes that release nitrogen into atmosphere beyond tolerance limits.

This can be minimized by conservational and sustainable practices of preserving natural ecosystems and resorting to chemical free agricultural practices that lead to lesser soil erosion (Bernhard, 2012).
The hydrological cycle refers to the continuous movement of water from one form to another.

This cycle is disturbed by the destruction of plants as plants transpire and water evaporates from their stem and leaves; but is extremely crucial for the management of ecosystem because it enables water to reach animals, plants and human. This cycle can be greatly disturbed by deforestation as evident in South America (Mace, Norris & Fitter, 2012).

The carbon cycle is a name given to explain the processes, which contribute in the carbon cycle, such as weathering, combustion, respiration and photosynthesis. The carbon cycle is disturbed by destroying forests and other forms of vegetation without replanting. This can be managed by planting trees and preservation of forests (Mace, Norris & Fitter, 2012).

Control Strategies to Limit Damage & Manage Ecosystems
A Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA) Evidence Report has been recently issued by the UK’s Government (Polasky Et al., 2011).

The CCRA is a self-governing analysis which was financed by the Devolved Governments and UK Government in order to pinpoint the relative strategies which were being devised managing the risks to the environment.

The underlying idea is that understanding the climatic variations and how it affects various components of the society are very crucial such as leisure, trade, infrastructure, homes, health, water, food, ecosystems, and economy.

The CCRA highlights that on average the global temperatures are raising at an increasing pace and due to this weather patterns in different areas are altering. This rise in temperature is also raising the level of seas and amplifying the frequency and intensity of extreme weather conditions. The important strategies discussed in the CCRA are as under (Polasky Et al., 2011):

• Reducing risk of change in climate by cutting down the emissions of greenhouse gases, and working with the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, G20/G8 and EU in order to reach a global agreement.

• Understanding the climatic vulnerability in grave detail because in recent times UK has experienced a huge loss in terms of environmental and societal impacts and has suffered high financial costs due to events of extreme climatic conditions.

• Making use of best evidence and science in order to comprehend the relevant range of climate changes which can have an adverse implication on the overall society and ecosystems.
• Evaluate the current and future plans by taking a risk-based approach.

Other legal bodies which are used to control environmental stability are the Forestry Commissioners which are appointed on the basis of the Plant Health Act 1967 and Forestry Act 1967. The forestry commissioners are responsible for preventing loss of tree cover and they also make sure that new forests do not impair or affect the environment in an adverse manner.

They also safeguard trees from disease and pests by carrying out regular inspections of imported timber and managing the plant health legislation. Furthermore, they are responsible to administer the Forest Reproductive Material Regulations in order to assure the quality of planting stock, cones cutting and tree seeds (Polasky Et al., 2011).

An international agreement known as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) has also been signed between different countries, which ensures that international trade taking place in specimens of wild plants and animals does not affect their survival adversely.

There are various wild animals that are on the verge of extinction, such as elephants and tigers. The international trade of such animals is done for diverse wildlife products such as medicines, tourist curios, timber, wooden musical instruments, exotic leather goods, and food products. All the countries that are part of CITES have to strictly follow the convention (Polasky Et al., 2011).

Aims & Objectives of Environmental Science – Environmental Strategies & Species Conservation
The primary aims and objective of environmental science related to environmental strategies and species conservation are to enhance, encourage study, organize and promote appreciation, understanding, and knowledge of nature and conservation of natural resources in population. Some

other objectives include (Therivel & Paridario, 2013):
• Examining the relationship between the different constituents of environment i.e. biological, chemical and physical; and also evaluating the impact of these constituents upon the life forms.
• Studying and developing an understanding about the working of the natural world in requisite detail.
• Evaluating the relationship between the natural environment and human beings and studying not only the effects exercised by the latter on the former but also to devise remedial strategies.

Analysis & Dissemination of Environmental Science Data
The environmental science data is analysed and disseminated by applying statistical analysis. The techniques and tools, which are applicable on the data, are applications, evaluation, rationale, statistical tests, correlation, standard deviation, variance, mode, mean, and averages. By applying the statistical tools and trends in studying variation in environmental science, it can be analysed whether the variations are too high or too low.

Data analysis improves environmental science by helping the scientists identify the variations over time in a simplified manner. The data analysis techniques can be used to conduct analysis for the future. For example, the trend of increasing temperatures around the globe can be seen with help of statistical analysis and histograms (Forsyth, 2013).

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TASK – 2
Evaluation of Global & National Environmental Legislation and Resulting Strategy / Intervention Implemented in a Number of Demographic Areas
It has been mentioned earlier that the primary factor which has affected the natural habitat of animals has been the increasing growth of human population. The particular interventions relating to habitat protection in Europe are as under (Ostrom, 2010):

Protected Areas
In order to conserve biodiversity various Protected Areas (PAs) or sanctuaries have been established in various parts of Europe.
Non-protected Areas
In order to protect the vast unprotected areas in Europe there is a European Landscape Convention of the Council of Europe which covers peril-urban, urban, rural and natural areas.

There are also various international instruments which promote conservation of habitats. One of them is Ramsar Convention which protects wetlands habitats. The aim of this convention is to provide a framework for international cooperation and national action for wise use and conservation of wetlands.

The types of wetlands covered in this convention are salt pans, rice paddies, wet grasslands, rivers, lakes. Another convention which protects coastal and marine habitat is the Barcelona Convention. This Convention binds its members to undertake necessary measures to avoid reduce and diminish pollution in the marine habitat of the Mediterranean Sea (Ponzoni, Acosta & Ponniah, 2006).

The convention has also established various protocols and standard operating procedures which are to be followed by the member states (Ostrom, 2010). Other interventions relating to habitat protection are given in Table – 2 below.

Instrument Objective Scope
Bonn Convention Habitat of 76 migratory species that face extinction Global
EU Habitat Directive 253 types of habitat North-East Atlantic
Table – 2: Habitat Protection Interventions
Effectiveness of Interventions & Strategies

Both environment and biodiversity are affected by certain factors which can be domestic, regional or international in nature and hence the response to environmental challenges also needs to be developed at all these levels while incorporating needs of all the stakeholders. Furthermore, in order to ensure the sustainability or effectiveness of the interventions, it is imperative that the applicable drivers are addressed first.

The effectiveness of environmental preservation strategies is greatly dependent upon the coordination amongst various stakeholders making trade-offs between socio-economic development and conservation of biodiversity (Lambin & Meyfroidt, 2011).

Description of Data Analysis to Identify Future Trends & Probabilities for Environmental Challenges
A number of different methodologies and instruments can be employed for data analysis in order to forecast and identify future trends and probabilities for environmental challenges. All of which fall in the domain of ‘future methods’.

Future methods assist the decision-makers in assessing the events and circumstances while they are in the initial stages of development in order to predict an accurate outcome and the appropriate course of action.

Some important types of these methods include: environmental scanning, scenario planning, Delphi method, cross-impact analysis, trend analysis, modelling & simulation, visioning, workshops, casual layered analysis, back view mirror analysis, monitoring content analysis, back casting, relevance tree, morphological analysis and futures wheel (Morrison & Wilson, 1996). Some of these methods are briefly explained here.

Environmental scanning is normally performed at the initiation of a project and involves collection of information from diverse sources to identify the basic issues and challenges (Morrison & Wilson, 1996).
Scenario planning aids in the decision making by painting realistic picture of a projected scenario, which is then employed towards choice of strategy, future state of affairs, risks and possible courses of action (Morrison & Wilson, 1996).

The Delphi method is suitable for groups dealing with a complicated issue and encompasses duration assessment, likelihood, implication and importance of diverse factors (Morrison & Wilson, 1996).

Cross-impact analysis is useful when the relationship or interaction amongst future events is intended to be explored. It can also be performed in complex causality chains and intensive quantitative analysis (Morrison & Wilson, 1996).

Trend analysis involves the evaluation of both qualitative and quantitative trends associated with a specific factor; and is normally employed to explore political, organizational, institutional and social patterns (Morrison & Wilson, 1996)….